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By: I. Roland, M.B. B.A.O., M.B.B.Ch., Ph.D.
Clinical Director, Montana College of Osteopathic Medicine
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At least 20 different species have been implicated in human disease, but the most common species causing infections in the United States is Legionella pneumophila, with most isolates belonging to serogroup 1. More than 80% of cases are sporadic; the sources of infection can be related to exposure to L pneumophila-contaminated water in the home, workplace, or hospitals or other medical facilities or to aerosol-producing devices in public places. Outbreaks have been ascribed to common-source exposure to contaminated cooling towers, evaporative condensers, potable water systems, whirlpool spas, humidifers, and respiratory therapy equipment. Outbreaks have occurred in hospitals, hotels, and other large buildings as well as on cruise ships. Health care-associated infections can occur and often are related to contamination of the hot water supply. Legionnaires disease occurs most commonly in people who are elderly, are immunocompromised, or have underlying lung disease. Infection in children is rare and usually is asymptomatic or mild and unrecognized. Severe disease has occurred in children with malignant neoplasms, severe combined immunodefciency, chronic granulomatous disease, organ transplantation, end-stage renal disease, underlying pulmonary disease, and immunosuppression; in children receiv ing systemic corticosteroids; and as a health care-associated infection in newborn infants. The incubation period for Legionnaires disease (pneumonia) is 2 to 10 days; for Pontiac fever, the incubation period is 1 to 2 days. Detection of Legionella antigen in urine by commercially available immunoassays is highly specifc. Such tests are sensitive for L pneumophila serogroup 1, but these tests rarely detect antigen in patients infected with other L pneumophila serogroups or other Legionella species. Convalescent serum samples should be obtained 3 to 4 weeks after onset of symptoms; however, a titer increase can be delayed for 8 to 12 weeks. The positive predictive value of a single titer of 1:256 or greater is low and does not provide defnitive evidence of infection. Newer serologic assays, such as enzyme immunoassay or tests using Legionella antigens other than serogroup 1, are available commercially but have not been standardized adequately. Levofoxacin (or another fuoroquinolone) is the drug of choice for immunocom promised patients, because fuoroquinolone antimicrobial agents are bactericidal and are more effective than macrolides in vitro and in animal models of infection, and limited available observational study data in adults suggest that clinical improvement (resolution of fever and duration of hospitalization) is more rapid with a fuoroquinolone than with a macrolide/azalide. Fluoroquinolones are not approved for this indication in children younger than 18 years of age (see Fluoroquinolones, p 800). Doxycycline should not be used for pregnant women or for children younger than 8 years of age unless there are no other therapeutic options (see Tetracyclines, p 801). Duration of therapy is 5 to 10 days for azithromycin and 14 to 21 days for other drugs. Longer courses of therapy are recommended for patients who are immunocompromised or who have severe disease. Hospitals should maintain hot water at the highest temperature allowable by state regulations or codes, preferably 60°C (140°F) or greater, and maintain cold water temperature at less than 20°C (68°F) to minimize waterborne Legionella con tamination.
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Effectiveness of massage therapy for subacute low-back pain: A randomized controlled trial. Lessons from a trial of acupuncture and massage for low back pain: patient expectations and treatment effects. A trial into the effectiveness of soft tissue massage in the treatment of shoulder pain. A randomised controlled study of reflexology for the management of chronic low back pain. Extracorporeal shock wave treatment for shoulder calcific tendonitis: a systematic review. Shock wave therapy versus conventional surgery in the treatment of calcifying tendinitis of the shoulder. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy for calcific and noncalcific tendonitis of the rotator cuff: a systematic review. Shock-wave therapy is effective for chronic calcifying tendinitis of the shoulder. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy for chronic calcific tendinitis of the shoulder: single blind study. High-energy extracorporeal shock-wave therapy for calcifying tendinitis of the rotator cuff: a randomised trial. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy in chronic calcific tendonitis of the shoulder-is it effective? Extracorporeal shockwave treatment is effective in calcific tendonitis of the shoulder. Effectiveness of radial shock-wave therapy for calcific tendinitis of the shoulder: single-blind, randomized clinical study. A comparison of two different treatments with navigated extracorporeal shock-wave therapy for calcifying tendinitis a randomized controlled trial. Ultrasound-guided needling combined with shock wave therapy for the treatment of calcifying tendonitis of the shoulder. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy for chronic calcific tendinitis of the shoulders: a functional and sonographic study. Local corticosteroid injections in the treatment of rotator cuff tendinitis (except for frozen shoulder and calcific tendinitis). Exercise therapy after corticosteroid injection for moderate to severe shoulder pain: large pragmatic randomised trial. Comparison of injection techniques for shoulder pain: results of a double blind, randomised study. A double-blind randomised controlled study comparing subacromial injection of tenoxicam or methylprednisolone in patients with subacromial impingement. A pilot randomized, controlled trial of treatment for painful arc of the shoulder.
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In contrast, Shigella invades the leishmaniasis, extraintestinal amebiasis, mucosa, causing ulceration and bloody diarrhea, hydatid disease and ascariasis. Removal of the bacterium by cause mixed infections, which may extend to combination treatment with antibiotics and produce liver abscesses and septicemia. The gut (usually due to antibiotic treatment) allows presentation is acute and infection can be fatal. What is the most likely diagnosis and what is he feels nauseated, and does not feel like eating, the differential diagnosis of a viral hepatitis in and he has developed right-sided abdominal this setting? Why was ice-cream involved and where did gastroenteritis were reported from Minnesota, the bacteria come from? What actions would you have recommended in caused an estimated total of 2000 cases of illness the ice-cream plant? What would be your immediate management pediatric unit with a two-day history of fever, of this baby? On examination she is unwell, mildly dehydrated, and febrile with a temperature of 38°C. In addition, when there is a clinical concern for Clostridium difficile colitis, this contractor will cover up to 11 targets if Clostridium difficile is one of the organisms tested for. Testing for 12 or more organisms will only be covered in critically ill or immunosuppressed patients. In immune competent individuals, most people with Cryptosporidium, a parasitic disease, will recover without treatment. Summary of Evidence Traditionally, stool testing algorithms required physicians to consider which specific pathogens that might be associated with individual cases of gastroenteritis, and choose a testing scheme that ensured that all the appropriate pathogens were targeted. Page 3 of 17 be reasonable and necessary for the specific needs of a given patient. Large panels that represent a “one size fits all” approach to testing without regard for a patient’s medical history, time of year, clinical setting, and patient symptoms are not reasonable and necessary, and thus not a Medicare benefit. In addition, while identification of specific viruses may be of interest in an outbreak or epidemiologically, clinical management is not predicated on viral test results, and are thus not reasonable and necessary. In other words, and the laboratory “blinds” unnecessary test results or utilize disclaimers in their reporting and bill only for the medically necessary test results. Other laboratories report results of all tests in the panel which adds unnecessary cost to the healthcare system when reimbursement is directly related to the number of organisms in the panel. This technology offers same day results in a matter of hours rather than 2-3 days of time-consuming and labor intensive bacterial cultures and immunoassays for processing stool specimens. Additionally, fragments of nucleic acids from dead microorganisms may cloud organism identification, complicating clinical interpretation, and potentially, clinical management.
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In their view, researchers from different disciplines should form an interconnected system of scientific knowledge, accessing research-based information with the ultimate goal of improving and solving health and health equity problems (Pang et al. Other scholars in the field of quality and health systems have supported this proposal, with cross-disciplinary, theory-driven collaboration between hospitals and public health departments noted as a way to broaden the epidemiological tools used to evaluate and investigate causal factors in population health (Perneger, 2005). Finally, I explain the guiding conceptual framework of this research; I show how it directed the formulation of the research questions and the data collection, evaluation, and interpretation. The programs work closely with external organizations, such as public health departments, nursing homes, community care providers, and homecare services, and with services within healthcare organizations, such as laboratories, clinical care services, and 34 occupational health and support services. In my view, this type of framework would be extremely useful, and in this chapter, I propose one possibility. The approach lacks many aspects of the traditional method advocated by the epidemiological triad of host, agent, and environment, the interaction of which produces diseases found both in communities and in hospitals’ emergency departments. Therefore, to better understand the exposure risks and contributing factors to the disease transmission processes, the dynamics of disease transmission and their interplay must be evaluated from all aspects. The present surveillance practices omit the systems’ view that is needed to clearly understand communicable diseases’ processes and the factors contributing to infection formation. As described in Chapter One, program level theories specific to a program are helpful in providing clarity about the component of a program or the mechanism that leads the input to outcomes. They are useful tools to understand evaluation and methods functions (Davidoff et al. However, micro and meso theories lack the scope required to address the complexities of multidimensional preventive strategies at a program and population level. The application of macro theories has been recommended to academics and researchers as a means to uncover assumptions and explain phenomena across multiple different disciplines; this proposed usage fits with the present research. Despite their potential utility, macro-level theories have seldom been applied, however. With the exception of one study applying a macro-level theory or grand theory (systems theory) for management and control of scabies outbreaks, most studies have used mid-level or program-level theories. Initially, the foundations of this theory were set when researchers observed the communication patterns that influenced the behaviour of hybrid corn farmers. Although initially presented as an adoption theory at an individual level, emphasis on innovation and the desire to apply a staged model led to its adaptation for use at an organization 37 level. The staged model covers the span of an innovation, from “initiation” to “decision” and “implementation” over varying lengths of time (Rogers, 1995). This does not offer a pliable theoretical ethos for comprehensive, trans-organizational programs. This model has essentially been used as a tool to measure the effectiveness of improvement initiatives (Langley et al. Reductionist and single cause approaches to disease formation and prevention have long been replaced by methods that consider biological, behavioural, and population-level factors and feature an analytical focus on their interrelatedness. Epidemiological studies increasingly focus on complex social, environmental, and individual factors to explain causes of disease (Galea, Riddle & Kaplan, 2010). In the field of infectious disease, the known dependence between individuals and communities at a local or a population level is an added reason to approach infections through a complex systems lens.