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Refer to Large Animal Urogenital Surgery, Bovine and Equine Urogenital Surgery, and other textbooks for further details on this condition. As he gets older, the abdomen becomes deeper and the bull less agile, and he is unable to breed. If this is not possible, it has been suggested that a general anesthetic or an internal pudendal nerve block (ref. If the length of the extended penis is < 25 cm from the tip to the preputial orifice, the penis of the bull is too short. Treatment analgesics, diuretics (if urine output is not compromised), and non steroidal anti-inflammatories. Sedatives should only be administered if they are essential to ensure operator safety. Some authors suggest repeatedly applying pressure bandages and massaging the penis through the bandages to reduce the edema before applying a longer-term bandage. The penis should be coated with an emollient to prevent drying and cracking of the epithelium. Alternatively, the penis can be retained in the sheath by a nylon net or panty hose that has been suspended at the preputial orifice by rubber tubing. If paralysis of the penis persists, amputation or surgical retraction may be necessary. Whenever possible, the stallion should be castrated and the castration incisions allowed to heal prior to amputation or surgical retraction of the penis. Circumcision (the reefing operation) may be required if there is excessive preputial scarring. These procedures are described in Current Therapy in Theriogenology 2, Equine Reproduction, Large Animal Urogenital Surgery, Bovine and Equine Urogenital Surgery, other surgery textbooks, etc. Persistent and extensive medical therapy s hould precede a decision to perform any of these surgeries. Reserpine has been reported to cause penile paralysis in a stallion when used for a prolonged period in order to modify his behavior. Etorphine has also been reported to be a cause of penile paralysis or 18 priapism in the horse. Pathogenesis and clinical signs of penile paralysis not well understood tranquilizers cause blood stasis in the corpus cavernosum penis (ccp) and may result in loss of vascular tone. Tranquilizers relax the smooth muscles of the ccp as well as the retractor penis muscles. Treatment benztropine mesylate (= Cogentin has anticholinergic and antihistaminic effects) @ 8 mg (0. However, the horse may not regain the ability to retract the penis and it often prolapses again after the retention device is removed. Collection by electroejaculation under general anesthesia can also be attempted on a limited basis (may be a danger of tearing the rectum with the probe).

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Like obstructive apneas, the eort of respiratory eort caused by either a central nervous 2 persists; however, the airow is not completely absent, disorder or a cardiac dysfunction. Occasional central apneas are also Cheyne-Stokes breathing is similar to central sleep common at sleep onset. When the patient attempts to breathe at the Cheyne-Stokes breathing are males over the age of 60. Central Sleep Apnea Due to Medical Disorder Central Sleep Apnea Due to High-Altitude Without Cheyne-Stokes Breathing Periodic Breathing Medical conditions such as degenerative brainstem High-altitude periodic breathing disorder is character lesions have been known to cause central respiratory ized by central apneas and hypopneas occurring during events. In this case, the central respiratory events occur a recent ascent to at least 4,000 meters, or approximately as a secondary disorder. Subjects with this disorder experi or Substance ence hypoventilation during both wake and sleep, with Certain drugs, including methadone and hydrocodone, onset usually at birth. Hypoventilation is typically worse have been known to occasionally cause central respiratory during sleep than during wake. Late-Onset Central Hypoventilation with Primary Central Sleep Apnea of Infancy Hypothalamic Dysfunction is life-threatening disorder aicting infants is char Subjects with late-onset central hypoventilation with acterized by long respiratory events, obstructive or hypothalamic dysfunction are typically healthy until central in nature, lasting at least 20 seconds. Primary approximately age 2, when they develop severe obesity central sleep apnea of infancy is extremely dangerous and central hypoventilation. Diagnostic criteria call for for newborns, and should be diagnosed and treated as an absence of symptoms during the rst few years of quickly as possible. Primary Central Sleep Apnea of Prematurity Central sleep apnea is common in premature infants, and Idiopathic Central Alveolar Hypoventilation sometimes requires ventilator support. After resolu Substance tion of obstructive events during the titration, central is disorder is characterized by hypoventilation during events emerge and persist with at least ve central sleep that can be traced to a medication or other sub events per hour of sleep. Sleep-Related Hypoventilation Due to a Medical Disorder is disorder is characterized by hypoventilation dur Sleep-Related Hypoventilation Disorders ing sleep that can be traced to a medical disorder that is Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome known to inhibit respiration, and is not primarily caused Also referred to as hypercapnic sleep apnea, obesity by a medication or substance. Snoring is caused by a partial obstruction (measured by kg/m2) greater than 30, and the absence of the upper airway, often including nasal obstruction, of a medical disorder or medication that may cause and in isolation may or may not be considered malig hypoventilation. A common example of automatic behavior to be disruptive to sleepers in adjacent rooms. Snoring is speaking on a subject matter that is completely out of tends to increase with body mass, and may or may not context for the situation. Typically the patient is not aected by this disor may experience periods of microsleep. One of the most well-known and disruptive symp Hypersomnolence toms of narcolepsy is cataplexy.

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Surgery Surgery has previously played an important role in the treatment of endometriosis-associated infertility. When considering the efficacy of surgical treatment, the disease stage (minimal/mild, moderate/severe and endometriomas) and outcomes compared to alternative treatment modalities must be taken into account. In minimal/mild endometriosis without disruptive anatomy, the objective of surgery is to destroy or remove all or most of the endometriotic implants. In these women, two meta analyses published in 2014 concluded that removal or destruction of endometriosis improves fertility. In one of the studies, summarizing data from two randomized trials, clinical pregnancy rate improved by a risk ratio of 1. These meta-analyses were dominated by a large Canadian multicenter trial, in which the monthly fecundity rate and 36-week cumulative probability of having a pregnancy increased from 2. Nonetheless, one should also consider the age of the patient, the costs, and reimbursement, when recommending treatment alternatives. In moderate/severe endometriosis, the goal of surgery is to restore the normal anatomy of the pelvis and remove large endometriomas. Unfortunately, there are no randomized controlled trials on the effect of surgery in women with moderate/severe endometriosis-associated infertility versus medical or no treatment, and observational studies are often flawed by not adjusting for possible confounding factors (43). A historical meta-analysis on observational studies suggested that laparoscopic surgery was superior to medical treatment or no treatment in endometriosis, but the stage of the disease was not reported in many of the included studies in that paper (44). In theory, suppression of endometriosis prior to surgery may reduce inflammation and aid removal of the lesions, but may also make minor foci invisible. Postoperative hormonal suppression may prevent recurrence of endometriosis, however, neither preoperative nor postoperative medical treatment seems to have any overall clinical effect in systematic reviews (45). Excision of endometriomas in infertile women has been controversial, given the risk of damage to ovarian reserve. Insemination of spermatozoa directly into the Fallopian tube or intraperitoneally has also been reported, but the studies are few and usually with a limited number of patients and treatment cycles, therefore these will not be described here. In a large multicenter cohort study including 3371 couples and 14968 treatment cycles from the Netherlands, the presence of endometriosis was a risk factor for treatment failure (47). However, the outcome data in this paper were not tabulated according to disease stage. When evaluating treatment benefits in endometriosis, it is important to select fair intervention and comparison groups. However, shortly after ablation of minimal/mild endometriosis, clinical pregnancy rate per treatment cycle and cumulative birth rate were similar in endometriosis and unexplained infertility, indicating a detrimental effect of endometriosis on fertility (53). In addition, a more advanced disease was related to increasingly inferior outcome (56).

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Because of this rise in estrogen, you may have an increase in your symptoms for a few weeks. Leuprolide acetate alone is usually prescribed for 6 months (1 shot every 3 months). After a few months of treatment you will have an appointment with your gynecologist to see if the medicine is helping you. This appointment also gives your doctor a chance to ask you about your pelvic pain and any other symptoms you may be having. If your symptoms are better, he may suggest that you continue taking the medicine. Taking Leuprolide acetate alone lowers the estrogen level in the body, which typically causes side efects similar to menopause. These side efects may include: hot fashes, vaginal dryness, decreased interest in sex, moodiness, headaches, spotting, and change in bone density. It is important to get your injections on time and to stop treatment when recommended. Since hormones are important to keep your bones healthy, low levels of hormones can lower your bone density putting you at risk for osteoporosis (thinning of your bones). The efects of Leuprolide acetate will decrease after you stop taking the medicine. This means that your bones may or may not be as solid as they were before you started the medicine. Research has shown that long term use of Leuprolide acetate alone can cause bone density loss. Bone density loss is a big concern especially if you have a family history of osteoporosis.

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