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Assuming that the second phage also entered the chromosome at an att site, diagram two possible arrangements of the prophages in the bacterial chromosome, and indicate the locations of the bacterial genes gal and bio. Hfr1 markers mal met thi thr trp Time of entry 10 17 22 33 57 Hfr2 markers his phe arg mal Time of entry 18 23 35 45 Hfr3 markers phe his bio azi thr thi Time of entry 6 11 33 48 49 60 Hfr4 markers arg thy met thr Time of entry 15 21 32 48 S8. These cells were streaked to obtain single colonies, and each colony was inoculated into liquid nutrient medium. However, a very small percentage of the cultures transferred a variable length of the bacterial chromosome, starting with the trpA gene. Page 781 (b) Draw a similar diagram showing the probable origin of cells of class 2. In order to choose the proper concentration of agarose, you need to know the expected size of the fragments. The protein encoded by the gene is approximately 110 amino acids in length and can be isolated by standard methods. Your friend excises the 12-kb fragment out of the phage and inserts it into a bacterial expression vector (a plasmid designed to allow transcription of inserts). What explanations would you suggest and what would you recommend she do to obtain the protein? The digestion products are separated by gel electrophoresis, and the size of each fragment is determined by comparison to size standards. To the surprise of a novice molecular geneticist, the plasmids do not all give the same pattern of restriction fragments on a gel. Both groups yield the same number of bands in the gel, the aggregate size of which is the same, but two of the fragment sizes are different. When the membrane is probed with fragment A, B, or D, the probe hybridizes to fragments of 4, 2, and 6 kb, respectively, in both the mutant and the wildtype strain. When the membrane is probed with fragment C, the probe hybridizes to 11 different fragments in the mutant genome (including one fragment of 5 kb) and to 10 fragments in the wildtype genome (but not one of 5 kb). What could account for both the mutation and the pattern of bands seen with the C probe? You design oligonucleotide primers 19 nucleotides in length that are complementary to the plasmid sequences immediately adjacent to both ends of the cloning site. Unsure of which Page 783 cloning procedure would be the best, you try two different approaches. Colonies with an insertion that interrupts the lacZ gene are white because of insertional inactivation.
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Crosses between the 'bright" and "dull" lines produced an F1 generation that was intermediate in maze-learning ability. Additional crosses revealed that maze learning is inherited as a typical multifactorial trait of the sort discussed in Chapter 16. First, there was no control experiment consisting of a randomly mated population, unselected for maze-learning ability, established from the same initial population as the selected lines and main-tained with the same population size as the selected lines. An unselected control is necessary to detect possible systematic changes in the environment in the course of the selection. A better set of experiments would have included at least two "bright" selected lines, at least two "dull" selected lines, and at least one unselected control line. The replication is necessary to assess the reproducibility of the result in independently selected populations. Nevertheless, in spite of the technical limitations, the experiments in Figure 17. In the absence of genetic variation, the divergence between the selected lines would be impossible. Roughly speaking, it is the proportion of the total variance in phenotype that is transmitted from parents to offspring. For example, the selected populations differed in their maze-learning ability depending on whether the rats were motivated by hunger or by escape from water. The maze-bright animals learned better than the maze-dull animals when motivated by hunger (the condition in which the selection was carried out), but the maze-dull rats actually learned better than the maze-bright rats when tested in a situation in which getting through the maze allowed them to escape from immersion in water. Furthermore, the maze-bright rats were more active than the maze-dull rats when in mazes, but they were less active than the maze-dull rats when in exercise wheels. The differences between the strains were varied and complex, and it is not clear which of the differences may have been related to maze learning in a causal sense and which were fortuitous differences. Indeed, it is not even clear that the maze-bright rats were in any sense "smarter" than the maze-dull rats. The maze-bright rats may simply have responded better to the specific maze learning test situation. Genotype environment interaction means that the relative performance of different genotypes changes drastically according to the environment. In another set of maze-learning experiments, the bright and dull rats from the thirteenth generation of an experiment like that in Figure 17. An "enriched" environment having cage walls decorated with designs in luminous paint and containing ramps, mirrors, swings, polished balls, marbles, barriers, slides, tunnels, bells, teeter-totters, and springboards-all constructed so that they could be easily shifted to new positions. A "restricted" environment having cages surrounded by drab, gray walls and containing only food and water pans. The maze-learning ability of the rats reared in these three environments is summarized in Figure 17. This difference is expected, because the normal environment is the one in which the selection experiments were carried out. The genotype-environment interaction is observed in the enriched and the restricted environments.
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Colonel Charles Ardant Du Pico, 1821−70 Human factors in war and the reaction of soldiers in the face of adversity are common to all three Services. However, there are subtle diferences in the command style of the three Services, especially when it comes to shared danger. In air forces, the strategic commanders very seldom come under direct threat from adversary action, whereas a naval commander is as much at risk as the sailor once battle has been joined. While the reactions of the rank and fle will be the same, it has also to be acknowledged that in applying air power only a small percentage of the total force actually face physical danger regularly. The cohesiveness of a unit and the unity of purpose that is built on shared danger are more apparent in the surface forces. Similarly, air forces also have cohesive units with sufcient unity of purpose, but they are shaped in a diferent manner and require diferent skill sets from the leadership to command efectively. From an air power perspective, the second part of the stanza is more important to understand. Alliances will make the diference between having to be completely self-sufcient in equipment and operational requirements, including availability of forward bases in critical locations, and having support from other forces that have interoperability with one’s own forces. Similarly, knowledge of the area of operations points to understanding not only the physical terrain but also the prevailing electronic environment that will determine the optimum course of action that should be adopted in launching a campaign. All air operations, especially ofensive campaigns, are heavily 391 The Art of Air Power reliant on intelligence through airborne surveillance and reconnaissance for correctness of targeting that is a cornerstone for strategic success. Local human intelligence, if available, is the best way to authenticate the selection of targets. At the strategic level of an ofensive air campaign, availability of allies, knowledge of the prevailing conditions in the area of operations and availability of accurate intelligence are three fundamental requirements for the commander to exercise decision superiority. Tere are subtle diferences in the psychological reaction of troops in the three Services Alliances provide mass and strategic depth to smaller air forces Knowledge of prevailing conditions is a prerequisite for the strategic planning and execution of air campaigns 392 Strategic Situations Superiority in Command The Superior Leader Without knowing every one of the Nine A Superior Leader cannot Strategise. When a Superior Leader attacks a powerful state— the enemy is stopped from concentrating force; the opponents are overawed, And alliances are undermined. The Superior Leader Does not strive to ally with all the other states; Nor fosters their power; But pursues secret designs and overawes the opponents. This way the Superior Leader Captures the opponent’s fortifications, And destroys the enemy state. A commander ignorant of even one of the variations in the strategic zones is unft to command. When a superior commander attacks a powerful state, it will be impossible for the enemy to concentrate troops and they will be overawed. The adversary’s allies will not be able to join together and existing alliances could be undermined. A powerful commander does not ally with all and sundry, nor fosters the power of other states. The commander keeps his intentions obscured, extends his personal infuence and relies on his ability to overawe the adversary, thereby capturing cities and overthrowing the enemy state.
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Take seeds from the selected population and plant them to grow the second generation of plants under conditions that are identical to those you used for generation one. Use new bottle containers or, if you choose to use the previous bottle systems, make sure that you thoroughly clean the systems and sterilize with a dilute (10%) bleach solution. Step 12 When the second-generation plants are about seven to 12 days old, reexamine the plants and score for the trait you selected. Step 13 Unless you plan on growing these plants for another generation (maybe another round of selection), you do not have to save these plants. Step 14 Compile, analyze, and graph the class data as you did for the frst generation. The chapter on quantitative methods in this lab manual (Chapter 3) provides some guidance here. Consider constructing a bar graph to compare the mean number of hairs per generation. As you carry out your analysis, be sure to include your rationale for the quantitative methods you have chosen in your discussion. You isolated this subpopulation from the larger population during pollination and the rest of the life cycle. You then planted the resulting second generation of seeds, raised the plants to a similar life stage as the previous population, and scored the variation in the second generation plants. During this long process, you recorded your observations, refections, and perhaps some questions in your laboratory notebook. You might also have identifed some other trait that you want to explore instead of the one the class chose. Phenotypic variation is the result of the interaction of the genotypic variation with the variables in the environment. How much of the variation that you studied could be the result of environmental diferences? You and your class may decide to do this work as a class (to distribute the work involved) or work in small groups. Posters, Investigation 1 S23 lab reports, online reports, and oral presentations are all possible efective means of submitting your work for review. An essential component of this investigation is to take it beyond the simple selection experiment. With the skills and knowledge gained in the selection experiment, you should be able to design new experiments to investigate the adaptive characteristics of the trait you studied. Start with a question of your own regarding hairs or some other variable quantitative trait, such as plant height, stem color, or fower number. For instance, in a closely related plant, one investigation demonstrated that herbivore damage early in the plant’s development led to increased trichome numbers in later leaves.
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