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Cognitive impairment, including confusion and communication deficits, is the greatest risk factor for elder abuse, while a decline in overall health resulting in greater dependency on others is another. Having a disability also places an elder at a higher risk for abuse (Youdin, 2016). Definitions of elder abuse typically recognize five types of abuse as shown in Table 9. Psychological and emotional abuse is considered the most common form, even though it is underreported and may go unrecognized by the elder. Continual emotional mistreatment is very damaging as it becomes internalized and results in late-life emotional problems and impairment. Financial abuse and exploitation is increasing and costs seniors nearly 3 billion dollars per year (Lichtenberg, 2016). Financial abuse is the second most common form after emotional abuse and affects approximately 5% of elders. Abuse and neglect occurring in a nursing home is estimated to be 25%-30% (Youdin, 2016). Abuse of nursing home residents is more often found in facilities that are run down and understaffed Table 9. Additionally, a family history of violence makes older women more vulnerable, especially for physical and sexual abuse (Acierno et al. Recent research indicated no differences among ethnic groups in abuse prevalence, however, cultural norms regarding what constitutes abuse differ based on ethnicity. For example, Dakin and Pearlmutter found that working class White women 422 did not consider verbal abuse as elder abuse, and higher socioeconomic status African American and White women did not consider financial abuse as a form of elder abuse (as cited in Roberto, 2016, p. Perpetrators of elder abuse are typically family members and include spouses/partners and older children (Roberto, 2016). Children who are abusive tend to be dependent on their parents for financial, housing, and emotional support. Substance use, mental illness, and chronic unemployment increase dependency on parents, which can then increase the possibility of elder abuse. Prosecuting a family member who has financially abused a parent is very difficult. The victim may be reluctant to press charges and the court dockets are often very full resulting in long waits before a case is heard. According to Tanne, family members abandoning older family members with severe disabilities in emergency rooms is a growing problem as an estimated 100,000 are dumped each year (as cited in Berk, 2007).

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Basically the choice of method selected for Aetiology screening and referral are determined by the availability Two different classifcation systems are used to categorize of personnel and fnancial resources in the particular the different causes of impaired vision in children. If either is present, referral to in Children* a specialist for laser photocoagulation is required. Population Prevalence Estimated Type I insulin-dependent diabetics do not have an asymp in Millions of Blindness Number tomatic latent period before manifesting as diabetics, hence (16 Years (per 1000 of Blind they can be examined for retinopathy 5 years after the onset Region of Age) Children) Children of diabetes and should be reviewed yearly thereafter. If Central America features indicative of high risk for marked visual loss such as neovascularization of the disc or elsewhere, or clinically Europe, 240 0. In: Strategies for the prevention of blindness in sophisticated modern vitreoretinal surgical equipment in an national programmes, 2nd ed. Whole globe: microphthalmos, anophthalmos, phthisis bulbi, atrophic bulbi Principles include identifcation of the population at risk and implementing pre-emptive measures. Prevention of ophthalmia neonatorum Retina: retinopathy of prematurity, retinal dystrophy, retinal includes cleansing the eyes of newborn babies after birth detachment, vasculitis followed by application of 1% tetracycline eye ointment. Other: cortical blindness, amblyopia Aetiological classifcation Action to be Taken at the Secondary Level Hereditary: chromosomal disorders, single-gene defects this includes proper management of eye injuries, corneal Intrauterine: congenital rubella, foetal alcohol syndrome ulcers, correction of refractive errors and appropriate refer ral of cases to a tertiary-level eye facility if required. Perinatal: ophthalmia neonatorum, retinopathy of prematurity, birth trauma Action to be Taken at the Tertiary Level Childhood: vitamin A defciency, measles, trauma At this level, screening and treatment of retinopathy of Unclassifed: impossible to determine the underlying cause prematurity is carried out, as well as management of cata ract, corneal scars, glaucoma, strabismus and complicated *Childhood blindness. Screening for Eye Diseases in Children development at the time the vision-threatening disease oc There are several disorders that cause substantial impair curred (Table 34. Severe keratomalacia is usually seen below 5 years Ophthalmia neonatorum of age and is particularly common in children between 6 months and 3 years of age. Since affected individuals Obvious developmental abnormalities such as microphthalmos and anophthalmos are young, the impact in number of blind person-years is tremendous. Nystagmus A point worth mentioning here is that severe vitamin A Squint defciency has also been recognized to occur in affuent Retinopathy of prematurity (examination with an indirect communities as well in relation to diseases such as liver ophthalmoscope by a trained observer) cirrhosis or in the elderly population with a poor diet. Pre-school Treatment and Control Squint and amblyopia Control is directed at health education, dietary advice, im Retinoblastoma munization, better hygiene and sanitation. In addition, in disadvantaged communities, vitamin A should be adminis Vitamin A defciency tered prophylactically to the population at risk. The treat School ment schedule for individuals with keratomalacia is outlined Refractive error in Chapter 15. Vitamin A can Global View be administered to malnourished mothers in endemic Blindness from malnutrition is known to be endemic in South areas at delivery and breastfeeding encouraged.

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Oral acyclovir for herpes ocular and systemic complications such describes a condition in which the entire simplex virus eye disease: effect on prevention of epithelial kera titis and stromal keratitis. Cutis hyperelastica (Ehlers-Danlos syndrome) the potential to induce ciliary block with blue sclera, microcornea, and glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol and a malignant (ciliary block) Since microcorneas also possess the 1953; 49(2):220-1. Some cases demonstrate properties of being flatter or steeper than other anomalies. Systemic and ocular manifestations of the rubella Management microphthalmos can enjoy improved syndrome. Appropriate management for microcornea cosmetics with a scleral shell ocular pros 11. Cornelia de Lange syndrome with optic disk pit: Novel association and fusion averse with potential amblyopia the fit of any contact lens is influenced review of literature. Corneal diameter in childhood carbonate lenses should be used if there is toricity, corneal asphericity, sagittal depth, aphakic glaucoma. Oculodentodigital dysplasia syndrome with angle tion between the eyes in order to protect design and material, water content, edge closure glaucoma. The Cornea, 2nd Evaluation of the anterior chamber Successes will be determined by the Edition. Frequent dysregulation of the c-maf proto-oncogene at 16q23 by understand iridocorneal relationships and translocation to an Ig locus in multiple myeloma. Digital evaluation of Congenital glaucomas require surgi host of hereditary conditions. These are particularly should be performed, as retinal colobomas and Anterior Eye. Snellen to the basal cell layer of the corneal epi acterized by the insidious onset of super acuity of 20/30 or better is seen in about thelium, the subepithelial nerve plexus, ficial corneal inflammation, with a long 80% of individuals at presentation. These lesions may stain altered immune response to an unknown Under normal circumstances, Langerhans minimally with fluorescein, and rarely exogenous or endogenous antigen may cells are found only in the epithelium, with rose bengal or lissamine green dyes. The disease may persist from ing atypical and degenerated epithelial not return fully to normal levels.

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Infected people are not considered contagious after 24 hours of appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Close observation of contacts is recommended, and they should be evaluated promptly if a febrile illness develops. Students who have been exposed to oral secretions of an infected student, such as through kissing or sharing of food and drink, should receive chemoprophylaxis (see Meningococcal Infections, p 500). Students and staff members with documented pertussis should be excluded until they have received at least 5 days of the recommended course of azithromycin, clarithromy cin, or erythromycin therapy and are able to participate in school-related activities. Before adolescence, children with tuberculosis generally are not contagious, but students who are in close contact with a child, teacher, or other adult with tuberculosis should be evaluated for infection, including tuberculin skin testing or interferon-gamma release assay (see Tuberculosis, p 736). An adolescent or adult with tuberculosis almost always is the source of infection for young children. If an adult source outside the school is identifed (eg, parent or grandparent of a student), efforts should be made to determine whether other students have been exposed to the same source and whether they warrant evaluation for infection. Exposed pregnant women should be referred to their physician for counseling and possible serologic testing. Infections Spread by Direct Contact Infection and infestation of skin, eyes, and hair can spread through direct contact with the infected area or through contact with contaminated hands or fomites, such as hair brushes, hats, and clothing. Lesions may develop when these organisms are passed from a person with infected skin to another person. Exclusion of any infected child with an open or draining lesion that cannot be covered is recommended. Infection is spread through direct contact with herpetic lesions or asymp tomatic shedding of virus from oral or genital secretions. Topical anti microbial therapy is indicated for bacterial conjunctivitis, which usually is distinguished by a purulent exudate. Except when viral or bacterial conjunctivitis is accompanied by systemic signs of illness, infected children should be allowed to remain in school once any indicated therapy is imple mented, unless their behavior is such that close contact with other students cannot be avoided. Fungal infections of the skin and hair are spread by direct person-to-person contact and through contact with contaminated surfaces or objects. Trichophyton tonsurans, the pre dominant cause of tinea capitis, remains viable for long periods on combs, hair brushes, furniture, and fabric. The fungi that cause tinea corporis (ringworm) are transmissible by direct contact. The fungi that cause these infections have a predilection for moist areas and are spread through direct contact and contact with contaminated surfaces. Students with fungal infections of the skin or scalp should be encouraged to receive treatment both for their beneft and to prevent spread of infection.

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