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If few students in the top group achieved a correct score on the item, take a look at the structure of the item and the distractors to see whether they may be causing problems. Seyer (1981) recommends these rules of thumb: items with a difficulty level of between 30 percent and 70 percent can be expected to have an acceptable discrimination ratio, that is, at least +. Items with difficulty levels below 30 percent or above 70 percent cannot be expected to have high discrimination ratios. You may find that many items fall on the borderline: discrimination ratios just under +. Manhattan: Center for Faculty Evaluation and Development in Higher Education, Kansas State University, 1986. Your campus may have a testing office that can help you with this type of analysis. By hand or with computer software, calculate the percentage of students answering each item correctly. The goal is to construct a test that contains only a few items that more than 90 percent or less than 30 percent of students answer correctly. Optimally, difficult items are those that about 50 to 75 percent of the class answer correctly. Items are considered moderately difficult if between 70 and 85 percent of the students get the correct response. Jacobs and Chase (1992) point out that an item may be difficult for a variety of reasons: it may be unclearly written; the content may be challenging; or the students may be unprepared. The statistical technique called item discrimination lets you know whether individual test items discriminate between top and bottom students. If you do not have access to a computer program that calculates correlation coefficients, you can determine discrimination levels by hand. For each question, identify the number of students in the top group of ten who answered correctly. Compute the discrimination ratio by subtracting the number of students in the bottom group who answered correctly from the number of students in the top group who answered correctly and dividing by ten (the number of students in each group). For example, i f nine of ten of the highest-scoring group and three of ten of the lowest-scoring group answered the eighth item correctly, the discrimination ratio for that item is. Many campuses have optical scanning equipment that can quickly score multiple-choice exams. Check with your campus testing service to see whether machine scoring is available.
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The sensitiv ity of the battery to the effects of concussion has been examined in a number of studies. It was developed for military use to study the cognitive effects of chemical and environmental stressors. This version consists of seven individual tests: 23 Sport-Related Concussion 733 Simple reaction time, Code Substitution, Running Memory Continuous Performance Test, Mathematical Processing, Spatial Processing, and a delayed recall task for Code Substitution. In general, this battery measures reaction time, processing speed, and working memory. For example, testing might have been done under non-optimal conditions, such as after a vigorous practice. It is possible that group testing in school computer laboratories contributes to some athletes not taking the testing as seriously as they should. Another concern expressed by some neuropsychologists is that it can be (1) difficult to know what some of the computerized tests are actually measuring, and (2) how similar or different the computerized tests are to mainstream traditional paper-pencil tests (for which neuropsychologists tend to be more comfortable). In my view, it is very difficult to determine what most neu ropsychological tests are truly measuring. Is Trails B, for example, a test of attention, divided attention, processing speed, set shifting, or cognitive flexibility Do the correlations between Trails B and other measures truly help us determine what the test is measuring In a mixed clinical sample (n= 56), for example, Trails B had the following correlations (The Psychological Corporation 2002, p. I find it necessary to simply carefully study the task requirements and concep tualize them in behavioral terms. These batteries have varying degrees of research support for use in concussion management programs. Their strengths and limitations, from a purely psychometric perspective, are similar to the strengths and limitations of traditional neuropsychological tests. It is a mistake to view computer ized testing, based on the research to date, as being summarily inferior to traditional neuropsychological testing. Use of Symptom Ratings There have been numerous studies illustrating that concussions cause a diverse set of symptoms and problems. The least frequently endorsed symptoms were nervousness, feel ing more emotional, sadness, numbness or tingling, and vomiting.
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The criteria of assessment were transparent from the start; teachers were presented with the project outline, detailing its three interacting stages, namely Theory, Practice and Reflection. A range of possible questions that teachers might wish to consider in the light of their practice was included, and teachers were encouraged to prioritise their own questions and concerns. They were also given a rough version of the diagram in Appendix 2, in an attempt to define the broader picture and to ground active learning 21 See also McCarthy, 1998, pp. The Teaching for Understanding framework is considered first, since it was the primary focal point of this phase of the Research Project. Multiple Intelligences is placed within the context of a teaching for understanding approach, where the variety of methodologies used are chosen to ensure and enhance understanding, rather than as ends in themselves. For reasons of confidentiality, individual contributions/quotations are not named. However the work of all participants on both courses is appreciated and 22 acknowledged. Using the Teaching for Understanding framework: When working on their projects, the participants were first asked to reflect on the following questions concerning the Teaching for Understanding framework: What have I learned about teaching from this framework What are the implications of Teaching for Understanding for an Active Learning Approach The four elements outlined in the framework are useful in guiding the teacher to create a learning environment which concentrates on promoting understanding. All teachers have allowed their project work to be made available for the benefit of other teachers and of this research. To turn activities (writing/acting/drawing) into performances of understanding, I as teacher must introduce an element that challenges students present thinking. The emphasis placed on throughlines and on unit-long understanding goals was particularly useful in helping me to think about what I wanted the students to learn and gave me a focus when planning the performances of understanding which followed. It is important for the teacher to ask herself how she knows that understanding/learning has taken place. Teachers found that the framework helped them to focus on student learning and understanding.
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The Independent search expertise in major depressive disorder Review Panel found no evidence of bias. Based on their review of Panel of experts with no relationships with industry, the available empirical evidence on the use of psycho Copyright 2010, American Psychiatric Association. This search yielded cholic, psychotic depression, atypical depression, seasonal 112 references. The Cochrane databases were also searched depression, postpartum depression, postpartum depressive for the key word depression, and 168 meta-analyses were symptoms, unipolar depression, unipolar depressive, or identified. Additional, less formal, literature searches were pseudodementia yielded 39,157 citations. This decision is ac convulsants, tranquilizing agents, electric stimulation ther knowledged to have resulted in an emphasis of study in apy, electroconvulsive therapy, psychotherapy, antidepres this guideline on newer treatments, because the majority sive agents, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors or the key of studies about older treatments, including tricyclic anti words antidepressant, antidepressants, antidepressive, anti depressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors, were pub depressive agents, antidepressive agents, second genera lished in decades prior to 1999. Readers are advised that tion, antidepressive agents tricyclic, antidepressive agents, the reviews of this older literature are described in the tricyclic, fluoxetine, citalopram, escitalopram, paroxetine, previous editions of the guideline. The treatment recommendations of this guide antipsychotic agents, testosterone, thyroid, tri iodothyro line, however, were developed to reflect the complete ev nine, thyroxine, omega 3, s adenosyl methionine, s adenosyl idence base. In order for the reader to carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, gabapentin, topiramate, appreciate the evidence base behind the guideline recom lamotrigine, lithium, modafinil, methylphenidate, Adder mendations and the weight that should be given to each Copyright 2010, American Psychiatric Association. In the listing of cited references, each reference Medications discussed in this practice guideline may not is followed by a letter code in brackets that indicates the have an indication from the U. The following guide is designed to help readers find the sections that will be most this guideline summarizes the specific approaches to useful to them. Section I summarizes the key recommendations of patient to identify general medical conditions that may the guideline and codes each recommendation according contribute to the disease process. The treatment recommendations that tion and implementation of a treatment plan for the follow may also have some relevance for patients who individual patient. Because many pa ical considerations that could alter the general recommen tients have co-occurring psychiatric disorders, including dations discussed in Section I. For patients found to have depressive symp can Psychiatric Association. It also provides a structured the treatment of depressive disorders in children and ad review and synthesis of the evidence that underlies the olescents can be found in the American Academy of Child recommendations made in Part A.