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This type of assessment relies on environmental factors and is intended to gather information about current memory functioning. Specific accident and/or illness factors are likely to be large influential considerations and statements about functioning garnered from this type of assessment must include the possibility of rapid change. Such an assessment is easily conducted in a nonthreat ening manner and can yield very useful information that assists in establishing a baseline, indicating the need for ongoing or future assessment and providing informa tion about the current level of independence or supervision necessary. This assessment yields information about remote and recent memory as well as memory across visual, semantic and verbal domains. While it is not appropri ate to assign quantitative levels of performance to such an examination, useful infor mation is gathered about current functioning which serves a baseline function, indicates the need for future assessment, and is helpful in managing patients or pro viding the degree of supervision necessary to meet their needs. Intermediate/Bedside Assessment of Memory Several methods can be used to briefly assess memory functioning in a systematic and structured manner. These methods focus on list-learning tasks, semantic memory tasks and visual memory tasks. The following three-component memory assessment task is offered for an expedient assessment of memory with guidelines provided for interpretation. Caution should be used when applying such interpreta tion, as many factors influence memory performance and should be considered. This type of assessment of current memory function is not intended to substitute for a more thorough assessment of memory, but rather is offered to assess memory in acute or medical office settings and determine if referral for further assessment is indicated. The guidelines for levels of impairment are also offered for clinical purposes and recognition that these guidelines for levels of performance are not rigid and are certainly affected by age and educational factors. The word list consists of five unrelated words which are presented three times while patients are told which words they forgot in the imme diate recall phase. A semantic message which contains five elements is then related and immediate recall is requested. The message is repeated twice, and the subject is told that they will be asked to recall the story in verbatim detail later. Subsequently, the subject is shown a drawing with five elements and requested to look at the drawing and 8 Memory and Learning: the Forgetful Patient 195 196 J. Schoenberg Recall Item Recognition Items remember the elements as precisely as possible. This is succeeded with spontaneous free recall of the five words and a recall of the story. Cued recall and recognition recall of the words and story are attempted following spontaneous recall trials. Then the spontaneous recall of the figure is requested, followed by recognition of the figure from among five designs. Again, caution should be used when interpreting per formance and these descriptors are offered as guidelines and should not be consid ered an adequate replacement for a thorough memory assessment in a stable neurologic population.
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Recognizing the complexity of these offenses, researchers have more recently focused on developing models that consider a variety of possible factors that could influence sexual assault perpetration. Rather than relying on a single factor to try to explain sexual assault, recent efforts often rely on multiple theories about sexual assault perpetration and empirical data to guide theory development. The Confluence Model is one of the most frequently cited and tested theories of adult sexual assault perpetration within the recent literature. The Confluence Model of Sexual Aggression Parental Child violence abuse Sexual Delinquency promiscuity Sexual aggression Attitudes Hostile supporting masculinity violence the hostile-masculinity pathway describes a series of events in which an individual who experiences violence during childhood through abuse and parental violence begins to associate8 with delinquent peers. Association with delinquent peers then leads to development of negative attitudes toward women and romantic relationships and to beliefs that women are sexual objects. The impersonal-sex pathway describes a process whereby abusive experiences in the home lead to associations with delinquent peers who encourage sexual promiscuity and conquests. This encouragement leads to early engagement in sexual activities, which increases opportunities to perpetrate sexual assault. The main difference between the two pathways is that one pathway works through negative attitudes and opinions about women, and the other through early and increased sexual experiences. While each of the pathways is proposed to independently predict sexual aggression, the Confluence Model also asserts that the pathways can interact to predict sexual aggression. According to the model, individuals who have both high hostile masculinity and high impersonal-sex scores should be most likely to display sexual aggression. In the original test of the model, both pathways independently predicted acts of sexual aggression and explained 26 percent of the variance reports of the frequency and severity of sexual aggression. In addition, the interaction between hostile masculinity and impersonal sex explained an additional 4 percent of the variance in whether or not someone displayed sexual aggression. Since its development, the Confluence Model has been tested several times with different populations and has been found to be predictive of sexual assault perpetration (Hall et al. Researchers generally consider this to be a good model when trying to predict something as complex as human behavior because it explains about 30 percent of the variance in the frequency and severity of sexual aggression. To date, the Confluence Model is considered one of the best models developed; however, researchers are continuing to work to better explain its etiology. For example, other research has begun to examine the utility of including other factors in the model, such as empathy and alcohol consumption. These studies have found that inclusion of these factors also helps explain variation in sexual aggression, though the amount of sexual aggression explained by these expanded models stays generally around the levels found in the original model (Parkhill and Abbey, 2008, and Wheeler, George, and Dahl, 2002). Research by Malamuth and others has suggested that there are some correlates and precursors to sexual aggression (which includes both legal and illegal behavior), but these studies were not designed to specifically predict who will or will not sexually assault at any particular time. Notably, the challenges of using different measures to predict future offending are well documented and have been studied for decades. For example, we know that many sex offenders were abused in the past, but that most abuse victims do not become sexual offenders. A key complication in using a test or series of tests to predict sexual assault proclivity is that, although the tests may be able to identify an increased risk for committing sexual assault, the overall risk of someone sexually assaulting another is low.
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Status of the Worlds Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 416416 in the Near East and North Africa Consequences of salinization Salinity in the region has badly afected cropping systems and in many cases has signifcantly reduced crop yields. For example, soil salinity in the Jifara plain in Libya has caused wheat yields to decrease from 5 tonnes ha-1 in the 1980s to just 0. The coastal area is one of the most highly populated regions of Oman, especially the Batinah area where about 52 percent of land is under cultivation and sufers from salinity. Naifer, Al-Rawahy and Zekri, (2011) showed that when salinity increases from low (less than 2. Soil salinity, sodicity and waterlogging conditions have defnite adverse impacts on soil productivity, in the range of 30-35 percent of potential productivity. Responses to salinization There are many responses in the region to contain the salinity threat such as: (1) direct leaching of salts, (2) planting salt tolerant varieties, (3) domestication of native wild halophytes for use in agro-pastoral systems, (4) phytoremediation or bioremediation, (5) chemical amelioration, and (6) the use of organic amendments. In Iraq and Egypt, surface and subsurface drainage systems have been installed to control rising water tables and arrest soil salinity. In Iran, Syria and other Gulf countries, crop-based management and fertilizers are used to combat salinization (Qadir, Qureshi and Cheraghi, 2007). In Iran, Haloxylon aphyllum, Haloxylon persicum, Petropyrum euphratica and Tamarix aphylla are potential species for saline environments (Djavanshir, Dasmalchi and Emararty, 1996). Recently, phytoremediation or plant-based reclamation has been introduced in the region. In Sudan there are very good responses for control of sodicity relying on phytoremediation, superior to results from the gypsum amendment traditionally used. The production of H+ proton in the rhizosphere during N-fxation from some legumes like hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab L. Despite the low soil C levels in the region (generally less than 5 g kg-1), with efective control measures of degraded soils, the region could sequester C at the rate of 0. In other words, with desertifcation control, reclamation of salt-afected soils, and intensifcation of agriculture on undegraded soils, the soils of the region have the potential to sequester 24 to 31 percent (168-380 Tg yr-1) of the total global drylands soil C (710-1220 Tg yr-1). Changes were due to pastoral activities combined with cultivation of rainfed crops like Pennisetum typhoideum), sesame (Sesamum indicum), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), and groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea). The base scenario modelled indicates that the land management practices continued for more than a century have led to a loss of C of about 180 g m-2 (1. Another study in north Kordofan found that rapid population growth has caused huge soil C loss (73 percent at rate of 16. The efects of cultivation of heavy textured soils on C change in some countries of the Mashreq region (Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Palestine) have been found to be broadly similar to results from the Maghreb (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya). Masri and Ryan (2006), in a study on Syria, compared the efects of more than twentyyears of wheat cultivation in rotation with lentil (Lens culinaris), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), medic (Medicago sativa), vetch (Vicia sativa) and watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) with continuous wheat grown in montmorillonitic thermic Chromic Calcixert. The trial showed that, apart from the rotation of wheat with medic which has higher C (8. This suggests that conventional farming systems in the Vertisols of the region may not be depleting soil C.
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